Impact of the Internet in Our Life

Available online at www. sciencedirect. com Computers in Human Behavior Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2005–2013 www. elsevier. com/locate/comphumbeh Impact of the Internet on our lives: Male and female personal perspectives Ann Colley *, John Maltby School of Psychology, University of Leicester, Henry Wellcome Building, Lancaster Road, Leicester LE1 9HN, UK Available online 30 October 2007 Abstract Gender di? erences in Internet access and usage have been found in a number of previous investigations. The study reported here extends this work by providing an analysis of the impact of the Internet on men’s and women’s lives.A content analysis of 200 postings from men and 200 from women, on the topic of ‘‘Has the Internet changed your life’’ invited by a news website, was undertaken then examined for gender di? erences. Results showed more women’s postings mentioned having made new friends or having met their partner, renewin g old friendships, accessing information and advice, studying online, and shopping and booking travel online, while more men’s postings mentioned that the Internet had helped or given them a career, positive socio-political e? ects, and negative aspects of the technology.The results are interpreted as supporting the view that the Internet represents an extension of broader social roles and interests in the ‘‘o? ine’’ world. O 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Internet; Gender; Gender roles; Gender di? erences 1. Introduction ‘‘The Internet is my job, my high street, my supermarket and my international social playground’’ (Female participant 63). Usage of the Internet continues to increase worldwide. In the UK 57% of households now have access, in comparison to 46% four years ago (National Statistics, 2006).The * Corresponding author. Tel. : +44 (0) 116 229 7188; fax: +44 (0) 116 229 7196. E-mail address: [ema il  protected] ac. uk (A. Colley). 0747-5632/$ – see front matter O 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10. 1016/j. chb. 2007. 09. 002 2006 A. Colley, J. Maltby / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2005–2013 Digital Future Project in the US has found that 78. 6% of Americans went online in 2005, with an accompanying increase in the amount of time spent per week on the Internet (Centre for the Digital Future, 2005).A number of factors have been found to relate to access and use, including socioeconomic variables, demographic variables, and education (e. g. Bimber, 2000; Wasserman & Richmond-Abbott, 2005). One signi? cant area of research over the last decade has investigated the impact of the Internet upon di? erent social groups and inevitably work on gender di? erences has been at the forefront, with concerns about the presence and impact of a ‘‘gender gap’’ in Internet access and usage. A number of investigators (e. g. Sherman e t al. , 2000) have investigated this gender gap in Internet use.Bimber (2000) found gaps in both access and use among US adults, and concluded that, while access di? erences can be accounted for by socioeconomic and other factors that a? ect women and men di? erentially, the gap in use was due at least in part to gender-speci? c factors such as the male stereotype of computers, cultural associations between gender and technology and gendered cognitive and communication preferences. However, there is growing evidence that the gender gap in access is closing or has closed with more women coming online, and that the gap in use of the Internet is still present but may also be closing (e. . Cummings & Kraut, 2002; Ono & Zavodny, 2003; Wasserman & Richmond-Abbott, 2005). There continues to be a gender gap in usage in the UK: the latest ? gures from adults in a nationally representative sample of UK households show that 40% of women had never used the Internet in comparison with 30% of men , and 55% of women had used the Internet within the 3 months prior to the survey in comparison with 65% of men (National Statistics, 2006). In addition, there are further gaps in the frequency and nature of use that appear to remain (Odell, Korgen, Schumacher, &Delucchi, 2000; Ono & Zavodny, 2003; Wasserman & Richmond-Abbott, 2005). One of the issues that was highlighted early on in investigations of the gender gap, concerns the negative e? ect of the link between the Internet and computer technology. This area grew from work on gender di? erences in computer attitudes and use more generally, which showed more negative computer attitudes (Durndell & Thomson, 1997; Whitley, 1997), lower female self-con? dence and higher computer anxiety among females (McIlroy, Bunting, Tierney, & Gordon, 2001; Todman, 2000).The possibility raised in the literature was that girls and women were being discouraged from using the Internet because of its delivery via a computer interface, and because of t he association of the kinds of operations required to interact with it with traditional masculine technology. Indeed, computer attitudes and Internet attitudes have been found to be linked (Liaw, 2002; Schumacher & Morahan-Martin, 2001), and experience using the Internet has been found to predict both (Liaw, 2002). Durndell and Haag (2002) found higher computer self-e? acy, more positive Internet attitudes, longer Internet use and lower computer anxiety among male than female students, and gender was independently linked to Internet experience. Similarly, Joiner et al. (2005) found that a signi? cant relationship between gender and use of the Internet remained, after controlling for Internet identi? cation and Internet anxiety. This may be due to a number of other factors, and Joiner et al. suggest that self-e? cacy and expectancy of success may be fruitful areas to pursue. In addition, it seems that there are di? erential e? cts of experience upon anxiety in using the technology am ong men and women: Broos (2005) found that experience decreased anxiety among men but had little e? ect for women. Alongside investigations of the gender gap in use of the Internet, there is a growing body of research on di? erences in the use of the Internet for di? erent functions by males A. Colley, J. Maltby / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2005–2013 2007 and females. This is a crucial area to pursue in order to understand the gender gap, since amount of use is inextricably linked to the functions erformed and the bene? ts of them for an individual. The number of potential functions of the Internet is very substantial and the activities are diverse. The current top Internet activities in the US are e-mail (top), general sur? ng, access to news, shopping, reading entertainment news, ? nding information about hobbies, online banking, accessing medical information, instant messaging and accessing information about and booking travel (Center for the Digital Future, 200 5).The available evidence points to variations in exploiting these functions of the Internet by its male and female users: women are more likely to regard it as a tool or means to an end, while men regard it as technology to play with and master (Singh, 2001; Turkle, 1984). For example, Tsai and Lin (2004) found gender di? erences in perceptions of the Internet among adolescents: males perceived its use as a source of enjoyment or ‘‘toy’’, while females took a more practical approach and perceived it as a ‘‘tool’’, ‘‘technology’’ or ‘‘tour’’ (providing the ability to navigate around di? rent sites and people). One area of Internet use that has attracted attention among investigators is interpersonal communication. This is due to the association of functions facilitated by electronic communication with the expressive and communal aspects of femininity, such as the potential for use in self-expression and the facility to communicate readily with family and friends. Thus, it was expected that women might engage with the Internet for such purposes, despite having lower self-e? cacy in relation to computer use.Jackson, Ervin, Gardner and Schmidt (2001) predicted that women would use e-mail more and men use the Web for information more, based on the greater interpersonal orientation of women and greater task orientation of men. This prediction was supported in a large sample of Anglo-American undergraduates, even after computer self-e? cacy, loneliness and depression were controlled for. Wasserman and Richmond-Abbott (2005) found that women use e-mail slightly but not signi? cantly more than men but that men use chat rooms more. A similar ? nding was obtained by Sherman et al. 2000) who found higher participation in chat groups among men, but higher e-mail use among women, and these di? erences remained among successive cohorts of students in the late 1990s, despi te generally higher use of the Internet. Women’s preference for e-mail and men’s for chat rooms re? ects the di? erent purposes of the two types of communication: e-mail facilitates personal contact with friends and family, while chat rooms can be anonymous and provide an arena for the display of power di? erentials present in society more generally (Wasserman & Richmond-Abbott, 2005). There are some null ? dings with respect to gender di? erences in e-mail use (e. g. Joiner et al. , 2005; Schumacher & Morahan-Martin, 2001), but methodological di? erences between studies may account for such disparities. With respect to other uses of the Internet, there is evidence that some of these too are gendered. Men are more likely to use game web sites (Joiner et al. , 2005; Sherman et al. , 2000; Weiser, 2000), download material (Joiner et al. , 2005; Teo & Lim, 2000), browsing or seek specialist information (Jackson et al. , 2001; Joiner et al. , 2005; Teo & Lim, 2000; Weiser, 2000). These ? dings provide additional support for the notion that men’s use of the Internet is more task-oriented than women’s, and the tendency for women to use e-mail more accords with their greater interpersonal orientation (Jackson et al. , 2001). They also support the male ‘‘toy’’ versus female ‘‘tool’’ distinction (Tsai & Lin, 2004). The research literature on gender and the Internet suggests that gender stereotypes play a powerful role in this as in other areas of human activity. Sherman et al. (2000) concluded 2008 A. Colley, J. Maltby / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2005–2013 hat we need to appreciate that ‘‘online behaviors and attitudes are extensions of o? ine social processes and relationships’’ (p. 893). If that is the case, what impact has the Internet had on the everyday lives of the men and women who use it? With respect to women, Morahan-Martin (2000) concl uded that it has brought both promise and peril. The perils are an inevitable consequence of the features that empower – freedom of expression and free access to information, since these also permit the ampli? cation of behaviors and perspectives that support the gendered power di? rential. What has been its impact upon men? Is the Internet just another arena in which gender is performed? The empirical research reviewed here has focused upon usage and patterns of usage, rather than impact from the point of view of the user. The purpose of the data analysis reported here is to provide a picture of the impact of the Internet on the everyday lives of men and women. 2. Method 2. 1. Participants and data collection On 24th July 2006, the BBC News website posted a topic for discussion on its ‘‘Have Your Say’’ discussion section (http://news. bbc. co. k/1/hi/talking_point/default. stm), with the title ‘‘Has the Internet changed your life? â€⠄¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢. The invitation issued to prospective contributors was to post personal stories about life in the digital age and how the Internet has changed their lives. The majority of contributors to this site used names rather than pseudonyms. There were substantially more postings from men, but the site was monitored until there were 200 postings from female contributors, then these together, with 200 postings randomly selected from among the male contributors were downloaded for analysis.The sample came from approximately 1200 postings during the period 24th July and 4th August. Selection for analysis was only undertaken if the name of the contributor was unambiguously male or female. The majority of the postings (92%) gave the town or country of origin, with 48% of the total postings being from the UK, 25% from the US and Canada, 7% from mainland Europe, and the remainder from the rest of the World. 2. 2. Data coding A content analysis was undertaken to derive category frequencie s for analysis.Coding was undertaken based upon content categories derived both from the existing literature and from a sample of the postings. These categories were: 1. Easy and cheap contact with family and friends (through e-mail, instant messaging etc. ) 2. Made new friends (through chat room, discussion forum, etc. ) 3. Renewed contact with old friends/family 4. Met partner/spouse (through chat rooms, dating sites etc. ) 5. International news sites 6. General information acquisition/research 7. Therapeutic/medical advice 8.Support for those with access/mobility problems 9. Entertainment (music, radio, movies, games, hobbies) 10. Travel booking A. Colley, J. Maltby / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2005–2013 2009 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Online education Trading Banking Shopping Job enhancement (increased e? ciency/? exibility) Job hunting Assisted career path Job in industry Studying online Socio-political e? ects (global access to information, democ ratization of information, bringing humanity together) 21. Negative e? cts (pornography, phishing, spam, viruses, bad use of time, addiction, reduction of face-to-face contact, availability of illegal items, proliferation of uncensored information, etc. ) Reliability of coding was established in a 20% sample from the postings. Across all categories this yielded substantial agreement (Cohen’s Kappa = 0. 78), with no individual categories yielding ? gures below the substantial range (Landis & Koch, 1977). Gender di? erences were then examined using v2 tests. 3. Results Gender di? erences were found in the frequency with which a number of the categories were present in the postings (see Table 1).Chi square tests revealed that a higher proportion Table 1 Frequency of appearance of coding categories by gender Category Contact with family and friends Made new friends Renewed contact with old friends/family Met partner/spouse International news sites General information acquisition/ research Therapeutic/medical advice Support for access/mobility problems Entertainment Travel booking Online education Trading Banking Shopping Job enhancement Job hunting Assisted career path Job in industry Socio-political e? ects Negative e? ects * ** % Men 25. 0 10. 0 4. 0 8. 5 9. 5 25. 5 2. 5 4. 0 12. 5 1. 5 2. 0 3. 0 6. 12. 5 6. 0 1. 5 12. 0 12. 0 12. 5 31. 0 % Women 30. 5 20. 5 20. 0 22. 5 19. 5 36. 0 7. 0 5. 0 10. 0 6. 0 6. 5 7. 0 7. 0 20. 5 7. 5 3. 5 4. 0 6. 0 5. 0 21. 0 v2 (1) n. s. 8. 53** 5. 50* 14. 97** 8. 07** 5. 18* 4. 48* n. s. n. s. 5. 60* 4. 98* n. s. n. s. 4. 63* n. s. n. s. 8. 70** 4. 40* 7. 05** 5. 20* p < . 05. p < . 01. 2010 A. Colley, J. Maltby / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2005–2013 of women’s postings mentioned having made new friends, having renewed contact with old friends or family members, having met their partner or spouse online, access to international news sites, being able to ? d information easily, accessing medical or ther apeutic advice, studying online, booking travel online and shopping online. A higher proportion of men’s posting mentioned that the Internet had played a role in their career path, that they had found employment in the industry, positive socio-political e? ects and negative aspects of the Internet. 4. Discussion The ? ndings from this study extend those of existing research on Internet usage by providing information on what men and women perceive as important to them. In some cases the ? ndings accord with the usage data, while in others they do not.With respect to interpersonal communication, our ? ndings show no di? erence in the frequency with which Internet-assisted contact with friends and family was cited as being an aspect of the Internet which had changed the lives of men and women. It is worth noting however, this was the second most frequent category occurring in postings from both sexes. Studies of usage have produced a range of results on gender di? erences in the use of e-mail, although on balance the ? ndings have suggested slightly more or signi? cantly more use by women (e. g. Sherman et al. , 2000; Wasserman & Richmond-Abbott, 2005). Our ? dings suggest that the impact upon men’s and women’s lives may be similar, although of course there may be di? erences in the way in which men and women enact relationships electronically (Boneva, Kraut, & Frohlich, 2001). Di? erential impact is evident in women’s higher frequency of mention of using Internet sites to make new friends, meet partners and renew old acquaintances, supporting the notion that women’s interpersonal orientation will in? uence their Internet behavior (Jackson et al. , 2001). This ? nding is of interest in the context of men’s greater usage of chat room sites found by Sherman et al. 2000) and Wasserman and Richmond-Abbott (2005), although our content category was not speci? c to chat rooms alone. It is nevertheless possible that men and women use such sites for different purposes and gain di? erent kinds or rewards from them: our data suggest that women place greater value on the facility to expand their social networks, whereas it is possible that men’s motives may be more mixed. Wasserman and Richmond-Abbott’s suggestion that men may be more likely to use them to play interpersonal games and display power may be relevant here, and accords with ? dings that men are more likely to be dishonest in chat room interactions (Whitty & Gavin, 2001) and lie about their sex, education, income and occupation (Whitty, 2002). There is a growing literature on the nature of online relationships and the characteristics of those who participate in them (e. g. Cheng, Chan, & Tong, 2006; McCown, Fischer, Page, & Homant, 2001) and it would be pro? table to examine gender di? erences in motivation to engage in interpersonal behaviors on the Internet in more detail. The most frequently cited positive e? ct overall was the abil ity to access general information on the Internet, although it was present in a higher proportion of women’s than men’ postings. This result contrasts with the usage ? ndings (Jackson et al. , 2001; Joiner et al. , 2005; Teo & Lim, 2000; Weiser, 2000), but supports the notion of women’s more practical approach and stronger perception of the Internet as a ‘‘tour’’ (Tsai & Lin, 2004), which may also explain their more frequent mention of news sites. The women’s more practical approach is also evident in their higher frequency of mention of accessing A. Colley, J. Maltby / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2005–2013 011 online education, therapeutic advice, booking travel and shopping. However, gender differences were not present in other practical uses such as trading, banking and accessing sources of entertainment. In order to explain the pattern of ? ndings, it is necessary to take into account the broader context of g ender di? erences in social role demands and accompanying gender-related traits (e. g. Eagly, 1987; Eagly, Wood, & Diekman, 2000), in which the domestic vs. external distinction di? erentiates the focus and interests of women and men. Our data suggest that this distinction may underpin the impact of the Internet on men and women.The Internet in? uences women’s lives more than men’s in facilitating new interpersonal interactions, providing access to information from the domestic sphere, and facilitating the purchase of goods, and in? uences men’s lives more than women’s by providing employment or assisting career development. In addition there was greater evidence in the postings from men of awareness of the global impact of the technology, for example, ‘‘Never have so many people been empowered to make a real di? erence and get their message heard’’, (male participant 159).This external awareness is also evident in men’s m ore frequent mention of the negative impacts, ‘‘A disadvantage is the anonymity. . .. idiots can spread their madness, insult others etc. all without fear of being uncovered. A 60-year-old suddenly becomes an 18-year-old and vice-versa’’, (male participant 108). The gender di? erence in relation to negative impacts, however, raises several further possibilities. One may be that women’s greater interpersonal orientation simply results in a tendency to emphasize the good rather than the bad in responding to the discussion issue on the site.Alternatively, women’s more domestic focus may make them less concerned about the broader context and in particular the ‘perils’ of the Internet in relation to power and exploitation (Morahan-Martin, 2000), so ironically, one outcome of the tendency of the Internet to re? ect traditional gender divisions may be to reduce women’s awareness that this is the case. There are some limitations as sociated with using this kind of methodology which are shared with studies of computer-mediated communication in discussion lists (e. g.Herring, 1993), and which relate to the lack of information on the sample. For example, no data on age is available and this may be a relevant variable in relation to impact, since younger users will have grown up with the Internet, while older users will have adapted to its use. However, there is no reason to assume that their distributions among the males and females in the sample should vary and introduce a systematic bias. There is no information available on experience, which may show a gender di? erence since women’s widespread use of the Internet has been more recent than that of men.Whether or how length of experience might in? uence perceptions of the impact of the Internet cannot therefore be answered here but would be a suitable topic for further investigation. Finally, the sample is drawn from those who visit a news website rather than users of the Internet in general so could be regarded as representing a part of the population with a particular pro? le of interests. However, news websites are visited by a signi? cant proportion of the population: this was the third largest use of the Internet in a US survey for 2005 (Centre for the DigitalFuture, 2005) and 35% of a recent sample of UK citizens had accessed on-line news in the last three months (National Statistics, 2006). One signi? cant advantage of using this kind of data is that the areas appearing in the sample of postings are those that spontaneously occur to those submitting them, without prompting from an investigator. Consideration of the advantages and limitations of using the postings as data raises a further gender di? erence, which relates to the acquisition of the quota sample used. There were very substantially more postings on the site from men than women, even when ambiguous 012 A. Colley, J. Maltby / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2 005–2013 names were discounted. While this may partly re? ect a residual gender gap in access, it also provides a clear illustration of the di? erent uses of the Internet by men and women, which are attributable to socio-cultural factors and therefore likely to remain (Wasserman & Richmond-Abbott, 2005). Interestingly, Fuller (2004) found that use of the Internet by men and women in the US for political activities, such as accessing information was broadly equal but that women were less likely to post to a political discussion group.It seems, therefore, that it is the opportunity to engage in an anonymous form of interpersonal interaction in which knowledge and power may be displayed (Wasserman & Richmond-Abbott, 2005) that attracts more male postings to sites like the one studied here. The analysis of this sample of postings has produced a picture of what men and women who use the Internet regard as the areas with major impact on their lives. 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Environmental Science and Ethics: Global Warming Essay

Global Warming can be defined as the continuous rising of temperature of the globe. This phenomenon is brought about by the greenhouse gases that rise into the atmosphere. The gases are trapped within the atmosphere by the sun’s energy. The build up of these gases had caused the globe to warm-up. National Resource Defence Council had noted that that over the 50 years the average global temperature has increased in a very fast rate and according to scientists, this would continue still in the future. It has been further analyzed that average temperature in the United States would increase 3 to 9 degrees higher at the end of the century. Future predictions from the Environmental Protection Agency of America reveal that the world would experience increasingly hot summers and intense thunderstorms. As stated above, the cause of Global Warming is the greenhouse gases. According to the website, timeforchange. com, the major natural greenhouse gases are water vapour Carbon Dioxide, Methane and Ozone. When sunlight reaches the earth’s atmosphere, it is absorbed and it warms the earth. Most of the heat is enclosed in the atmosphere at a longer time than the sunlight. This in turn creates the warming effect around the globe. The greenhouse gases acts like a reflector of heat radiation to the Earth’s atmosphere. Investigation of experts show that the higher the concentration of greenhouse gases, the higher would be the heat reflected to the Earth’s atmosphere. The National Resource Defense Council (NRDC) shows that Carbon Dioxide is one of the major contributors of the greenhouse effect in the atmosphere which causes around 9 to 26%. Coal burning power plants are stated as the largest source of Carbon Dioxide in the United States. Carbon Dioxide produced every year is 2. 5 billion tons every year. Automobiles are the second largest source which produces 1. 5 billion tons every year. Based on statistics from NRDC, the largest source of global warming pollution is the United States. Creating a ratio and proportion examination, Americans are 4 percent of the world’s population. However, the United States contributes 25% of the Carbon Dioxide pollution in the atmosphere. Comparing numbers, 4% of the people in the globe produce a quarter of the pollutants. This only shows that control is necessary in this particular area. Further investigating the phenomenon, there are four major effects of Global Warming. These are climate pattern changes, health effects, warming water and ecosystem disruption. Average warmer temperatures rises as a result, the frequency of heat waves rises. The probability of having drought and wildfire also increases. The warmer temperature results to a higher rate of evaporation during the seasons of summer and fall. As evidence, there has been a recorded drought in the years 1999 to 2002. This has been noted as one of the widespread droughts in the last 40 years. Another is that the Firefighting expenditures have consistently increased by $1 billion per year. Heated climates cause heat waves and the heat waves result in heat related deaths. In the year 2003, an estimate of 35,000 lives were claimed by heat waves in Europe. It can be further noted that the temperature had reached 104 degrees Fahrenheit and the temperature had not changed for two weeks. Aside from the heat waves, the heat had also caused increased in weed growth wherein the pollen triggers allergies and causes asthma. Mosquitoes can further survive because of the increase in temperature. Mosquitoes carryng dengue viruses and Malaria can survive in elevations as high as 7,200 feet in Colombia. The warming of water had caused more powerful and dangerous hurricanes according to the NRDC. As explained by the council, warmer water in the oceans drives more energy into tropical storms. This in turn causes the storms to become more destructive and intense. As evidence, the number of storms within the category of 4 and 5 had increased in the last 35 years. The 2005 Atlantic hurricane season had shown a record of 27 storms where 15 of the storms had become hurricanes. Another is Hurricane Katrina that had happened in the year 2005. The melting of glaciers and ice thaw is also an effect of the warming water. Ski Resorts in the Alps as per Cline (2005) had all increased elevations and some ski resorts should not be opened because of the line of snow reliability had increased. Further elevation of snow is needed in order to operate a ski resort. The Ecosystem shifts and some of the species die. As a result of the warmer temperature, some of the species in the ecosystem die because the species cannot adopt to the warmer climate. As per NRDC, there are more than one million species that would be extinct in the year 2050 because of global warming. The most possible ecosystems that would be affected are thouse in the Alps, the tropical mountains and the mangrove forests. The warmer temperature and rise in the sea level would not be able to support the ecosystems in the near future. There had been several solutions that had been several solutions that had been enumerated by the National Resource Defense Council. These are to save energy using appliances that has the energy star level on it. By being able to save energy, this may have an effect in the energy produced by the coal burning power plants. Another possible solution is the modification of vehicles which are the second largest contributor of the greenhouse gases. The fuel burning models of to-date would be modified by the fuel cell technology cars that would be introduced in the next twenty years. This does not only concern vehicles but also aircrafts. There has been a study from the NRDC that the airline industry seeks information on algae-based fuel and biobutanol, which can be made from sugar, beets, corn, wheat and straw. Last solution that can be noted in the report of the NRDC is the burying of coal underground. The United States is looking at future prospects of converting coal into a clear burning gas and capturing Carbon Dioxide. The Carbon Dioxide would then be buried underground to prevent it from being released to the atmosphere. Looking at the effects of the global warming to the environment, it is only right to have laws and further investigate the matter. However, there are some who use this global phenomenon as a means to gain fame, money, grants and chances for a better life. Driessen (2007) had shown the different angles that can be illustrated because of the global warming phenomenon. The main topic of his article shows that the issue of global warming had caused alarm however it had also helped produced financial and political incentives. It has been shown in the article that the some scientists had used the study of global warming to improve their chances of getting research grants and foundations in companies, foundations and the government. Politicians gain credentials because they had put in interest in global warming. They had put their pork barrels into projects that would promote ethical planetary protection. Driessen (2007) had stressed that corporate responsibility was promoted by some politicians. There are several actions that were supposed to be negated but instead are praised by the people because the consequences of actions that had been taken by the politicians are not shown at present. The effects of their actions can only be seen in the long run. The politicians had cemented their relationships with the environmentalists because of the environmental protection projects that they had attributed in lieu of global warming. Another group that had benefited from the global warming phenomenon are the environmentalists. Driessen (2007) had taken note of the manipulation of the environmental activists that had led them to use the global warming situation to raise funds. It had become a strategy for these groups to have control over a global resource through the use of laws, treaties, regulation and pressure campaigns. Environmental Defense of the government had blamed the warming of the environment to the situation brought about by the increasing cases of disease such as malaria. Looking at this angle closely, the environmental defense could have made preventive measures like fumigation in order to kill the mosquitoes that cause these diseases instead of blaming the climate. There are also some companies that may use the situation to further advertise their product which shows a self-interest in the business. According to an issue in New York Times by Revkin last 2005, the Bush Administration had made several notations on the notes about the climate changes. It was shown in the article that several officials in the government had manipulated the data about the climate because of the fact that America has been showing a very large contribution in the global warming phenomenon. In order to save face, the government had tried to change the readings in the climate. Thus, there were several incidents that showed that these were covered up by the government officials in the white house. Ethically speaking, as inhabitants of the Earth, the people must concentrate on solving the problem of global warming and not on focusing on things that are just for show. Some may show that they are doing a particular thing to save the planet but if the deed is analyzed more closely, it was being done in order to benefit on what they can get out of the people who would believe on their actions. Global Warming is a very serious topic and it needs every person’s cooperation in order to put things in order. Being able to create projects and research that help investigate global warming is not enough. What is important in the issue of Global Warming is the actions that each and every one would do to prevent further damage of the phenomenon to the environment. REFERENCES Revkin, A. (2005). Bush Aide Softened Greenhouse Gas Links to Global Warming. New York Times. 8 June 2005. Retrieved last January 15, 2008 from http://www. nytimes. com/2005/06/08/politics/08climate. html? pagewanted=1&_r=1 Driessen, P. (2007) Global Warming, Ethics, Pork and Profits. Canada Free Press. 27 September 2007. Retrieved last January 15, 2008 from http://www. canadafreepress. com/2007/driessen020707. htm Time for Change (2007). Cause and Effect of Global Warming. Retrieved last January 16, 2007 from http://timeforchange. org/cause-and-effect-for-global-warming National Resource Defense Council. (2007). Global Warming Basics. NRDC: The Earth’s Best Defense. 9 February 2007. Retrieved last January 17, 2008 from http://www. nrdc. org/globalWarming/f101. asp National Resource Defense Council. (2007). Solving Global Warming it can be done. NRDC: The Earth’s Best Defense. 9 February 2007. Retrieved last January 17, 2008 from http://www. nrdc. org/globalWarming/solutions/default. asp National Resource Defense Council. (2007). Consequences of Global Warming. NRDC: The Earth’s Best Defense. 9 February 2007. Retrieved last January 17, 2008 from http://www. nrdc. org/globalWarming/fcons. asp Environmental Protection Agency. (2002). Global Warming: Cause and Effects. Retrieved last January 15, 2008 from http://chronicle. augusta. com/images/headlines/080402/Global_Warming. jpg

Economics Report 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Economics Report 3 - Essay Example The company currently is also observed to be focused on product differentiation to obtain competitive advantages through the demand shift trends reflected in the recent market changes. Table of Contents Abstract 2 Table of Contents 3 1.0. Introduction 4 1.1. Report Brief 4 1.2. Company Background 4 1.3. Research Aim 4 1.4. Method of Data Collection 5 2.0. Literature Review 5 2.1. Demand Theory 5 2.1.1. Demand Curve 5 2.1.2. Price and Demand Elasticity 6 2.2. Market Structure Theory 6 2.2.1. Product Differentiation Theory 7 2.2.2. Sales Revenue Maximization Theory 7 2.3. Long Run Theory 8 3.0. Case Study 8 3.1. Demand Curve Shift 8 3.1.1. Sainsbury Investment 9 3.2. Market Structure 9 3.2.1. Product Differentiation Strategy 10 3.2.2. Product Shift and Sales Maximization 10 3.3. Unconventional Long Run Company 11 4.0. Conclusion and recommendation 11 4.1. Answer to Aim 11 4.2. Overall Conclusion 11 4.3. Recommendations 12 References 13 1.0. Introduction 1.1. Report Brief This report ai ms at examining the current performance deciphered by the UK based retail giant, J. Sainsbury plc (Sainsbury). Accordingly, to accomplish the defined objective, various economic theories have been applied and eventually, make suggestions for the better performance of the company in future. 1.2. Company Background The retailing company was founded in 1869 by John James Sainsbury and his spouse Mary Ann Sainsbury. Since then the company has been growing at a sustainable pace. Currently, the company operates over 1,106 supermarkets and convenient stores and has an employee base of 157,000. Operating in the retailing industry the company has it’s headquarter in London (J Sainsbury plc, 2013). 1.3. Research Aim As mentioned above, this study aims at researching the current developments in Sainsbury’s strategic behaviour along with that observed in its industrial trends, with the application of relevant theories. Based on the inferences drawn from the assessment of Sainsbury ’s current developments, as presented in its annual report for the year 2013, the essay also aims to suggest few rational recommendations to the company. 1.4. Method of Data Collection The primary source used in this research is the 2013 annual report of Sainsbury. Besides this source, information from the company website are also used in this essay, as per as the requirement. Additionally, inferences have been drawn from relevant peer-reviewed journals and academic sources so as to accomplish the research aim. 2.0. Literature Review 2.1. Demand Theory According to the demand theory, explained in Reynolds (2011), customers’ willingness to buy the commodities served by a particular industry or by a company along with their purchasing capacity, determines the market demand. The theory bases its assumptions on the study of various determinant factors that influence consumer willingness and their purchasing power as well. These determinant factors include, the price of the products (Px), price of the other goods or substitute goods (P0), income of the consumer (I), advertisement and the structure of population (N) among others. Thus, the demand function is depicted as D = f (Px, P0, I, N). The theory further assumes that consumer demand for a particular commodity varies if

Ecotourism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ecotourism - Essay Example However, according to the normative definition, ecotourism is centered on three main criteria: (i) 'it should have nature based attractions (ii) visitor interactions should focus on education, and (iii) experience and product management should follow the principles associated with ecological, socio-cultural and economic sustainability' (Weaver and Lawton 2007:170). Prescriptive definitions of ecotourism is preferred amongst experts which include 'value-based dimensions' such as conservation, community involvement and social responsibility.(Weaver and Lawton 2007: 1169). Ecotourism is being promoted by governments and the tourism industry as a sustainable alternative to mass tourism. However, this too has not escaped critics' comments and myths. They have suggested that ecotourism can be damaging to the natural environment. Critics are skeptical that the future of tourism industries can be at risk (Mihalic 2000) with the motivation of ecotourists. There are different types of eco/nature tourists. Lindberg's 1991 typology distinguishes hard-core, dedicated, mainstream tourists from casual nature tourists. Similarly Laarman and Durst (1987) has drawn a distinction between 'hard' and 'soft' ecotourism experiences based on the degree of difficulty in ecotourism. Ecotourism is one of the 'new' forms of tourism based around sustainable ideas. As compared to other forms of tourism ecotourism is small in scale, non-consumptive, ethical/responsible, and of benefit to local people. However, in the absence of an adequate management regime ecotourism is unlikely to be sustainable ecologically by any relevant measure. Most ecotourism destinations are geographically remote and hence ecotourism involves the issue of carbon expenditures with long distance travel and their contribution to climatic changes. Therefore, ecotourism can never meet the parameters of environmental sustainability. Critical Comments The sustainability of ecotourism is a controversial issue. As long as ecotourism serves its purpose as an 'alternative tourism' by satisfying ecotourists and fulfills their mission, it has already achieved its goal and purpose. There is a definite scope of developing ecotourism both at the local and global scales in order to promote tourism industry as such. Critical Reflections Different types of ecotourism have to be formed and developed by the government systems of developing and developed countries. Ecotourism must aim to gain the economic advantages of tourism development causing minimal negative environmental impact. SUMMARY 2 Tourism and Environment With reference to the environmental impacts of tourism from geographical perspective tourism as an industry depends on physical environment. Tourism is associated with environmental benefits although it is not free from negative impacts. Tourism is not free from related pollution problems. Most of these are related to traffic, tourist infrastructure and the activities of tourists. In congested areas emissions negatively influence vegetation, soil and visibility. Heating systems of tourist related buildings emit some

Training Responsibilities of Supervisors and Managers Dissertation

Training Responsibilities of Supervisors and Managers - Dissertation Example The supervisors and managers, therefore, have a responsibility to look after the needs and aspirations of the employees who work under their aegis and are trying their utmost to give in the best, on a proactively consistent basis. The training realms within any organization remain significant in entirety because the training modules teach so much more than merely training the employees. They tell them the basics related to conducting their respective chores, tasks, and undertakings. They also dictate the exact basis through which work processes get manifested in entirety. What is even more significant is an understanding that the supervisors and managers play their necessary roles at inculcating the kind of training that is needed by the organization in essence. The HRD department is therefore dependent on the supervisors and managers but what is ambiguous is the fact that these supervisors and managers are not a part of this HRD philosophy at all. The supervisors and managers hold t he fort for the organization when it comes to training and its imparting for the sake of the employees who are present in different departments of the organization. The organizations, therefore, find the best ways and means through which the HRD can become an independent department and work on its own to achieve the end objectives and results; all of which remain significant on a proactive basis. The list of responsibilities might comprise of preparing training procedures and plans for the employees, drafting policies which can tell them exactly what to expect of their relevant domains both in the short term as well as in the long run, and coordinating with clients and stakeholders on a constant basis. The training procedures are important to ascertain because these take into consideration the aspects of inculcating the true spirits of the organization on to the employees who remain significant during such undertakings. The supervisors and managers need to come out of their related realms to make sure that the employees are on track and are able to complete their jobs in a proper way.

Select an organization that has a web presence and analyze the Article

Select an organization that has a web presence and analyze the organization using elements listed below from Chapter 3 - Article Example It is a company based in US but it enjoys a large market share in all continents. The organization has branches in various countries to ensure that there is a continuous supply of products to their customers. The company has laid strategies that are responsible for the large market share that they have. Gillette enjoyed monopoly of the market until 1962 when other companies producing similar products emerged to compete for market. Despite of competition from other companies, Gillette has maintained a higher number of customers across the globe. Gillette has 70% of the market share with its competitors sharing a 30% share. The company started with men’s razor and blade products, after a proper market research, they started to manufacture women shaving products too. Men had complains when they shave with ordinary razors. They developed complications like rushes and pain after shaving. Due to this, they needed shaving products that are safe. Gillette produces a variety of shaving products that completely satisfies their customers’ shaving needs. Their razor products include Atra, Trac-II, and Sensor for women. They also produce Mach3 that has three thin blades designed to shave closely with less strokes and no irritation. Customers as well need products that are less expensive. To satisfy this need, Gillette has applied technology to produce shaving products that can be used more than once; hence, their products are economically friendly to customers. Gillette has several competitors that threaten their large market share. Key competitors include Schick and the Quattro. They produced the first four bladed razors to the market. They also produced shaving products for women for instance, Intuition for women invaded Gillette’s hold of market for women shaving products. Gillette has also faced serious competition from online competitors for example the dollar-shaving club. They try to win customers using their low shaving prices as compared to Gillette

Mkting of Services Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Mkting of Services - Assignment Example In light of this, the paper will propose appropriate measures of service quality for the face-to-face interaction between provider & potential customer, & for any interaction which is mediated by technology. A service quality is antecedent to consumer satisfaction while consumer satisfaction is antecedent to the purchasing power of the consumer (VERMA, H. 2012). Service organizations perceive quality service in terms of costs; profitability, consumer satisfaction, customer relations, behavioural intention and word of mouth. Service organizations ascertain service quality by taking either of the above. Services are mainly composed of three major characteristics such as intangibility, inseparability of production and consumption, heterogeneity and perishability. A recurring theme in the United Kingdom service companies is the difficulty manager’s experience in translating and understanding the customer’s expectations into service that employees can understand and execute. Customer expectation is the belief about service delivery that serves as standard of reference against which performance is judged. Customers evaluate service quality by comparing their perception of servic e with their expectations. Service quality and customer service expectations can be categorized into five overall dimensions: tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy. Travellers for instance may expect no frill service for short domestic flight but would be dissatisfied with the same level of service on a full airline service flying a longer distance. It is therefore a key challenge for the travel agents and operation manager to understand customer expectation of the service that they are offering to their customers. Customers have different service expectations which are classified into two. They include the desired service

Mechanical Properties of Loading Arm Research Paper

Mechanical Properties of Loading Arm - Research Paper Example The export of oil is one of the inherent activities that earn the country a revenue to maintain a good standard of living. However, the revenue delivered may not be optimum especially when considering the rate of wear and tear occuring in the loading arms. The signficance of including loading arm in this study is because it represent an equipment used in shipping oil the production process. This triggered the main objective of the study which was to study the spare part, packing, for its association to the worrying problem of leaking petrols at the ports. The accessment of the spare part provides possible solution because it gives more information about the various parts that susceptible to damage in the loading arm. Further, the background of the study resulted from the urge to reduce the delay problems caused by the probability of mechanical breakdowns occuring when loadin gas products at the ports. In case of gas products, the problem causes havoc at the ports since the customer h ave to be stopped from the moving, to assure them of safety transactions. The effect of the breakdown on the customers add to the weight of this study, which was to perfom experiment on the sealant (parking in the loading arm) and extract results useful in providing probable solutions. In order to achieve the objective of the study, the experiment involved the use of three instruments in studyign the spare part. The three instruments used included The CSM Tribometers, mechanical tensile testing machine and Differential scanning calorimetry.

Research proposal about adolosence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Research proposal about adolosence - Essay Example According to Frame, Richard and Matthew (2009) if divorce occurs, it is likely to be one of the most stressful events in the lives of both parents and children and can be characterized as a significant period of transition, regardless of age. Aro and Palosaari (1992) state that divorce "will directly or indirectly touch nearly all American children" (p.14). Therefore, it is important to study how parental divorce may affect families and to investigate the consequences of marital dissolution for the children involved. Knox, Zusman and Decuzzi (2004) suggest that approximately 6 million divorced families exist in the United States and majority of them have children. According to Kreider and Fields approximately 26 percent children are currently living with just one parent in the United States (cited in Comerford, 2008). There are many studies in the literature investigating the short term and long term effects of divorce on children. The loss of a parent through divorce disrupts the fa mily life, the parent to parent relationship and the parent to child relationship in significant ways (David and Mark, 2009). The effects of parental divorce have been found to linger in the children of divorce, even as they develop into adults. This study will attempt to investigate the impact of parental divorce on the past and present sexual behavior of college aged children. A wide array of sexual behaviors will be examined. Specifically the age at which each behavior occurred will be examined to gain a more accurate picture of possible differences between those from intact and divorced families. Research suggests that daughters from divorced families are more likely to have intercourse at an earlier age and are likely to have more sexual partners (Hetherington and Kelly, 2002; Wallerstein and Lewis, 2004). This study will examine a much wider spectrum of sexual behaviors to investigate whether these results are supported. In addition, male sexual behavior will be examined in a comprehensive way, as this area has been neglected in previous research. Literature Review The Impact of Parental Divorce on Adolescence Although Forehand et al. (1991) suggested that the effects of divorce may be less detrimental to children and adolescents than was previously thought, much literature does indicate that children and adolescents who experience parental divorce function less well than those who do not, particularly in the area of social adjustment (Giuliani, Lafrate and Rosnati, 1998). When compared to adolescents from intact homes, adolescents in divorced families are two to three times more likely to behave in an antisocial and delinquent way, to associate with delinquent peers, to show poor school performance (Grimm and Wassil, 1994) and to drop out of school (Hetherington, 1993). These adolescents have been shown to have more problems in social relationships when compared to adolescents from intact families (Hetherington, Law and O'Connor, 1993). Such adolescents have also been shown to have lower levels of trust towards others (Giuliani, Lafrate and Rosnati, 1998), they receive less parental supervision, they receive fewer curfews and rules (Wallerstein and Lewis, 2004) and they often take more responsibility for themselves (Wallerstein and Lewis, 2004) than peers who come from intact families. Wallerstein and Lewis (2004) also reported that parents in divorced f

In my project I am using three tables Essay Example for Free

In my project I am using three tables Essay Calculate Date Due Back   Scroll through on the stock table to the desired item   The hire table displays all of that item and status etc   Change the status from available to on loan (L), select customer ID from the lookup and enter Date out   Click Calculate Date Due Back button to calculate date due back Validation And Verification I will use validation in my tables, e. g. length check for phone number, and the presence check for stock number. I eliminate a lot of the need for validation with lookup functions for example title in customer table, and item ID in hire table. This helps to avoid unnecessary mistakes, and prevents unneeded duplication. Testing I will now show hard copies of the database to prove that it is working correctly. This is the Customer Table The lookup function shows what a patient currently has on loan. Miss Russell currently has two junior crutches, a junior neck brace and a junior wheelchair which are due back on 23/02/2003 and 13/02/03 for the junior wheelchair. The wheelchair is currently overdue, and my overdue query will show this. Miss Russells other items are due to be returned within the week, so they should be on the Due This Week query, I will show a printout to prove my project is working correctly. The stock information query below shows that the junior wheelchair, stock #1 is in Miss Russells possession. I will now show that Miss Russell has returned the wheelchair, however it needs repaired, and Miss Russell requires a replacement. I will change the settings on the Stock Hire Linked table, and click the calculate Date Due Button These changes now appear in my tables and my weekly stock report. I will also show how I can add new items and customers. I will add a Mr Wilson, living in Gall Street, and in ward 5. This also shows my phone number validation, as I have purposely entered 11 numbers instead of 12.

Utility Programs And File Management Computer Science Essay

Utility Programs And File Management Computer Science Essay Utility program are programs that help in maintaining , controlling and managing the computer resources . the functions of utility program is that it performes a specific functions rather than a major function or applications, these programs help in the day to day activities performed in a computer and help the computer to run in high performance . file management programs help us in managing files easily , a file manager is a program which provide a user interface to work with the file system , in this program the files is basically displayed in a hierarchy and some other file managers features are inspired by web browsers which have forward and backward navigation keys . the newer graphical interfaces that comes with operating system like windows 95 version have reduced the need to have a alternate file management programs For example the T- mode commander is a well k now orthodox file managing program. The texA file manager program is a compter program that provides a graphical user interface to work with the file system, the commom operation performed on the files or a number of files are . Create, Open ,Edit ,View ,Print ,Play ,Rename ,Move ,Copy ,Delete And it also modifies attributes ,properties and permission, some file manager provides network connectivity from protocols such as FTP , NFS,SMB .this is achieved by the user to browse for a file server or by providing its own full client implementations for file server protocols. Disk management program involves formatting and defragmenting the disks , defragmenting helps placing files on the disk so that the full file is in a order which reduces the time which helps in finding the file ,some of the disk management programs let us chose a certain number of files that are often accessed ,like the operating system itself and frequently used programs they are arranged in the fornt of the disk. Defragmentation is a process which help reduce the amount of the fragmentation in file systems. This functions by organizing the contents of the disk to store the pieces of each file close together ,it also helps and attempts to create large region of free space using compaction to impede the return of fragmentation. Fragmentation occurs on the operating system when system cannot allocate enough space to store a complete file as a single unit , but it puts a part of it in gaps between other files . larger files and maximum number of files also contribute to fragmentation and result in systems performance loss. Other type of defragmenters keep smaller file inside a single directory, as the files are often used accesed in sequence. The movement of the hard drives read and write heads over the areas of the disk when accessing fragmented files is slower compared to accessing a non fragmented file in sequence ,without moving the read and write heads . Memory management consists of software tools where the random access memory programs present data is displayed. The memory simultaneously is enhanced by making maximum utilisation of memory which is lying unused making it useable. Kernel uses the system memory and helps the data to access keeping security measures in mind as per requirement.segmentation results in virtual addressing.virtual addressing facilitates the kernel to display the original physical address in form of a virtual address. The memory that is being processed in the virtual address and the original differs fron one another. This helps in maintaining the excluisivity if the programs and avoids crashing. On the system reference is made to the data whose memory is missing.virtual addressing helps the OS to store the data in other mediums like hard drive to replace the data from the main memory(RAM).Ending to enable the programs to use more memory than actual present. Backup software :- Backup software is a software which restores the backed up data , backup is essential if u have any data which is important and woe want to keep it for a while . this backup software will compress the data to take up the least space . In other word back up is a process of backing up which makes copies of the data so that these additional copies may be used to restore the original data if there is a data loss event There is two functions of backup .thr primary function is to recover data as a reaction to data loss it might be caused due to data deletion or corrupted data . and the second purpose of backup is to recover data from a historical period of time within the given constrains of user defined policy ,it is configured within a backup application for how long copies of data are required ,back up recovery is a part of disaster recovery plan bot all of the backup plans are able to reconstitute a computer system ,or in other complex configurations such as a computer cluster , active directory servers or a database server by restoring data from a back up A back up software contains one copy of the data which is worth saving in this the data starage requirements are considered . before data is stored in the storage location it is selected , extracted and manipulated . many different techniques have also been developed to optimize the back up procedure which includes optimization for dealing with open files and live data resources as well as compression ,encryption and duplication among others Data compression Data compression it is a process of encoding information using the bits than the original representation would use . these programs squeeze the space generated by the formatting schemes The data compression is helpful because it helps in reducing the consumption of the expensive resources such as the hard disk space compressed data must be decompressed to be used and this extra processing may be detrimental to some applications. the data compression schemes therefore involves trade off among various factors ,which include the degree of compression ,and the amount of distortion introduced and computational resources required to compress and uncompress the data . the oldest methods used codes such as ASCII and EBCDIC these are examples of block block codes when source messages of variable lengths they are allowed many of the algorithms , for example in a text file processing each character may constitute a message or messages may be defined to consist of alphanumeric and non alphanumeric strings . for examples in a pascal source code each of the token represent a message . Anti Virus : Anti virus software administers the flow of viruses into a system from various modes which are contagious.They are very harmful to the system as they have a potential to crash the computer. Antivirus software detects and removes viruses,worms and Trojan horses also prevents and removes adware ,spyware and other malware There are various strategies employed ,signature based detection is a kind which searches for known patterns which states a valid code.there is possibility for a system to be infected with a new external malware which has no signature.heuristics is a better option to fight against such day to day threats. One of the types of heuristics approach can identify the malicious codes or slight variations from which the viruses are born or come to existence. Anti virus software has a potential to impair the functionality of a computer,people who are not so familiar with these hazards may encounter problems in understanding the feedbacks given by the computer and how to react towards it to solve the problem. A anti virus detection process can be complete only when there is a adequate balance between the false negatives and false positives.false positive report s end up in destruction of the computers memory. Operating systems The operating system was created by the company that manufactured the processser and motherboard , so each of the operating system was proprietary that is unique for every manufacturer Operating system performs many functions and is in very basic terms ,an interface between your computer and the outside world , as a computer consists of several parts including the monitor ,keyboard mouse and other parts ,the operating system provides an interface to the drivers this is the reason why sometimes when you install a new hardware the system requires a driver to install the software The operating system functions with system utilities that monitor performance and debug the errors and help in maintain the system , it introduces a set of libraries which is used by applications to perform the tasks to enable direct interaction with system components . the commom functions of operating system run transparent to the users . The types of management include memory management that is allocation of the main memory and the storage areas for the system programs and the user programs and usefull data . In input-output management co ordinates the different output and input device while one or more programmes are being executed . File management is the storage of files of various storage devices and it helps all files to be easily changed by using the text editors Common Operating Systems:- The winner in the PC market was MS-DOS, Microsofts Disk Operating System, and its twin at IBM, PC-DOS, also written by Microsoft. Windows 95 and Windows 95 The previous versions of Windows use DOS as the operating system and adding a graphical user interface which will do multitasking. Windows Me (Windows Millennium Edition) is an upgrade of Windows 98 Windows NT The NT came from New Technology is an operating system for client-server type networks. Windows 2000 Upgraded version of Windows NT rather than of Windows 98?

Economic Impact of Population and Technology on the Environment :: Environment Environmental Pollution Preservation

Economic Impact of Population and Technology on the Environment Ask any economist what two things have changed in the past three or so million years since humans first began appearing in demographically significant numbers and he will tell you with unwavering confidence: population and technology. And that economist would be right. These two factors are the root cause of every change in the standard of living we have experienced since the dawn of humanity. Any anthro-ecologist posed with the same question and will offer up little more than a puzzled look. Only two? The point, here, is that economists have a certain tendency to apply Razor's Axiom to every situation imaginable. Looking at the effect humans have on the environment is most commonly a qualitative exercise. While it may be possible to count sheer number of deer hunted or square miles of forest burned as the result of human involvement in nature, such calculations are more commonly done with anecdotes and broad estimates. Ask an economist to measure the damage done to the environme nt by humans and you will hear about equivalent and compentating differentials two quantitative methods of valuing a qualitative loss. Both neccesitate understanding humans' preferences and values, and take an understandably anthropocentric view of the Earth. Regardless, in absolute, per capita, and relative terms, both of those differentials have increased consistently over the course of human history. The first step in evaluating human impact on the environment is to elucidate what we consider human-caused ecological damage. There are, not surprisingly, a great many approaches possibly in defining such a broad concept, but there are a few basic principles which are nearly universal bads. The damages in this illumination are defined with a Darwinian perspective. One such bad is the loss of diversity among non-human population. This loss of diversity can take the form of extinction of plants or animals, a loss of genetic diversity among one species, or a forced-relocation of an existing population. Another bad is the transformation of terra, whether intentional or unintentional, as the result of human activity. Examples are common think 1930 s Oklahoma Dust Bowl and are often caused by agricultural activities. The next step in evaluating the extent human-caused environmental damages lies in the measurement of such damages. Since no dollar value can be placed on the extinct ion of a species, we must estimate the value that species contributes to the Earth s consumption (evaluating changes in consumption is the only way we can say that one situation is better than another).

The Historical Context of The Bhagavad Gita and Its Relation to Indian

The Historical Context of The Bhagavad Gita and Its Relation to Indian Religious Doctrines The Bhagavad Gita is perhaps the most famous, and definitely the most widely-read, ethical text of ancient India. As an episode in India's great epic, the Mahabharata, The Bhagavad Gita now ranks as one of the three principal texts that define and capture the essence of Hinduism; the other two being the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras. Though this work contains much theology, its kernel is ethical and its teaching is set in the context of an ethical problem. The teaching of The Bhagavad Gita is summed up in the maxim "your business is with the deed and not with the result." When Arjuna, the third son of king Pandu (dynasty name: Pandavas) is about to begin a war that became inevitable once his one hundred cousins belonging to the Kaurava dynasty refused to return even a few villages to the five Pandava brothers after their return from enforced exile, he looks at his cousins, uncles and friends standing on the other side of the battlefield and wonders whether he is morally prepared a nd justified in killing his blood relations even though it was he, along with his brother Bhima, who had courageously prepared for this war. Arjuna is certain that he would be victorious in this war since he has Lord Krishna (one of the ten incarnations of Vishnu) on his side. He is able to visualize the scene at the end of the battle; the dead bodies of his cousins lying on the battlefield, motionless and incapable of vengeance. It is then that he looses his nerve to fight. The necessity for the arose because the one hundred cousins of the Panadavas refused to return the kingdom to the Pandavas as they had originally promised. The eldest of the Pandav brot... ...e first English translation of the Gita was published. All religious texts of ancient India were written in Sanskrit. In November 1784, the first direct translation of a Sanskrit work into English was completed by Charles Wilkins. The book that was translated was The Bhagavad Gita. Friedreich Max Mueller (1823-1900), the German Sanskritist who spent most of his working life as Professor of Comparative Philology at Oxford University, served as the chief editor of the Sacred Books of the East. (Oxford University Press). The Gita was included in this famous collection. Since then, the Gita has become one of the most widely-read texts of the world. True, there are unexplained contradictions and paradoxes in this brief book, but its wide-ranging implications based on the two ancient Darshans of India and its allegorical meanings are still being examined and reinterpreted.

Comparison of Popes The rape of the Lock and Swifts A Modest Proposal

Although Alexander Pope's, The Rape of the Lock, and Jonathan Swift's A Modest Proposal are both witty satires, they differ on their style, intention, and mood. To begin, in The Rape of the Lock, Alexander Pope uses satire to invoke a capricious, melancholy mood to illustrate the absurdity of fighting over the cutting of one's hair. Hidden inside this poem is a crafty criticism of the society that helps create the crisis over the stolen lock. A Society in which appearances ere more important to a person’s sense of identity, and treats the insignificant with utmost importance. The very title of this mock- epic gives the audience a clue, the word "rape" and all its implications bring to mind a heinous crime of violation. Pope chose to utilize the heroic couplet to trivialize this mock- epic â€Å"But when to mischief mortals bend their will, how soon they find it instruments of ill!† (3. 53-54). He also employs in many instances, historic allusions to give the poem a serious feel â€Å"Fear the just Gods, and think of Scylla's fate! chang'd to a bird, and sent to flit in air, she dearl...

Eveline Analysis

Ashley Carey ENC 1102 MW 12:30- 1:45 8/29/12 After reading â€Å"Eveline† by James Joyce I would say I was not overall shocked with the outcome of her not leaving. Throughout the story I could tell that Eveline was unsure of herself and of what she wanted. She couldn’t decide between running away to Buenos Aires with her lover, Frank or staying to make sure her family is looked after. I felt that her age is a significant factor of her choice of staying in Dublin.She didn’t understand herself enough because she didn’t experience life to see how she deals with difficult life changing situations. I felt like her choice shows herself to the audience. She could have chosen to go with Frank and come off to some readers as â€Å"following her heart†, maybe â€Å"selfish†, â€Å"thinking about her future and what she desires in life and in her heart†, â€Å"not caring for her family†.I personally feel like her decision to stay was a mor e â€Å"comfortable† decision for her and she wasn’t taking risks and was thinking about the love for her family and siblings and not wanting them to get hurt in anyway. If her mother hadn’t told her before she died to keep the home together as long as she could, I felt that Eveline would have ran away with Frank not feeling guilty when she left; That she didn’t do the one thing that her mother asked of her before her death.

Gun Control vs. Crime Rate

Jessica Vickers Dr. Jonne Akens Engl 1302 25 February 2013 Gun Control vs. Crime Rate According to the Second Amendment of the Constitution of the United States of America, â€Å"A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed. † In this very amendment lies the main issue of gun control. â€Å"To many, the language of the amendment appears to grant to the people the absolute right to bear arms. However, the U. S.Supreme Court has held that the amendment merely protects the right of states to form a state militia. † (Kimberlin) Gun control, or the controlling of firearms, is any act or proposal by any local, state, or federal agency to inhibit, deter, or prohibit the possession of firearms by any law abiding U. S. citizen. Some believe that by controlling the people’s possession of firearms, the violent crime rate will decrease. However, this is not the case. The contro lling of firearms, also known as an infringement of the second amendment, is irrelevant to the reduction of violent crime.Instead, further investigation into the criminals’ motives and state of mind will better resolve the rate of crime in our country. The Second Amendment is a mere twenty-seven words long. However, both campaigns of the gun control debate obtain such different interpretations from those words. â€Å"The gun-control campaign interprets the Second Amendment as if it is specifically referring to militias. The Gun-rights supporters say all the other amendments focus on individual rights, as does â€Å"â€Å"2A. † The Second Amendment helps protect what is promised in the other nine and that it is a line the government is forbidden to cross. † (Kimberlin) Kimberlin also states that, â€Å"not many nations have firearms enshrined into their constitutions, but in 1789 the Founding Fathers thought that guns were important enough to deserve one of 10 amendments that make up the Bill of Rights. † If the possession of guns for our personal protection were not an important factor, they would not be included into such an important document to our country. What the Second Amendment means, more than two centuries later, seems to depend on which side of the gun issue you are on. † (Kimberlin) This being so, further investigation of this amendment is necessary to becoming more informed on this fiery debate. Gun control is a very heavily debated topic at this point in time, especially since the shootings at Newtown and Sandy Hook have taken place. But this has been a topic of debate ever since the Prohibition Area of the early twentieth century. However, these mass shootings have triggered new debates on this controversial issue.In the shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary, Adam Lanza entered the school carrying multiple firearms and shot at students, as well as teachers, after shooting his mother at their home in Newtown, CT. Th ese shootings prompted further debate on the rising issue of gun control and have brought a proposal to legislation in which the sale and manufacture of certain semi-automatic firearms and magazines holding more than ten rounds of ammunition would be banned, and reduced access to certain firearms would be enforced.Although this shooting was a very tragic event, are firearms really the problem? Or should we be venturing further and investigating the minds of these criminals before they even pick up a weapon? According to Joe Wicked, â€Å"on the other side of this debate, there are concerns addressing the mental health aspect, addressing the illegal activities associated with firearms and that the law abiding citizens should be left the right to own the types of firearms and magazines that they desire and have the ability to maintain access to both the firearms and/or magazines that they choose. This side of the gun control debate points to a story in which, â€Å"a young man prese nt when a gunman began shooting at the Clackamas Mall in Portland Oregon, Nick Meli, heard the first shots fired and pulled out his concealed weapon and confronted the shooter. He did not fire, as he did not want to risk bystander’s lives. The gunman then ran and took his own life (Benner, 2012). The latter side of the debate shows how civilians are capable of stopping a crime before the police are able to arrive. â€Å"Some even claim that more guns will help to control the crime and prevent mass shootings from occurring. (Wicked) After being subjected to so much information, how is the reader to know which side is right? According to Wicked, â€Å"This can be a difficult question to answer and requires detailed analysis to come to an informed decision. Studies that have been done on the issue of gun control have found many things that gun control affects and many things that it does not affect. One key item that studies have found is that gun control laws affect the use o f specific guns in violent crimes, but do not affect the rate of crime itself. The controlling of firearms by either banning the sale, transfer, importation, or manufacture of, as well as controlling the amount of ammunition available and the storage of that ammunition, is irrelevant to the reduction of violent crime. When debating the effect that a particular law, or ban of item, has on the rate of violent crime, it is beneficial to look back at the effect that laws and bans similar to these have had on the crime rate throughout history. The 1994 Assault Weapons ban which Dianne Feinstein proposed and that of which Congress passed would be a prime example. This ban specifically selected fire arms that looked like the firearms militaries around the world used. These types of weapons are weapons not commonly used in crime. In 2010 handguns comprised 68. 5% of all gun murders in the United States (FBI, 2010). This means that in the remaining 31. 5% of gun murders, shotguns, hunting ri fles, and the banned assault weapons. Rifles constituted 0. 6% of all murders by gun. The banned assault weapons make up a subset of these rifles. We know that less than 0. 6% of all murders were by these weapons that were banned. (Wicked) Another way to look at the effectiveness of prior firearm bans, according to Wicked, is to look at the crime rate after the ban was lifted or, as in the case of the 1994 Assault Weapons ban, the ban expired. â€Å"The FBI data from 2010 shows that the five year trend in crime is that it continues to decline. Further drill downs of the data show that on average the crime rates in all categories are on the decline in the United States. If the ban were effective on reducing violent crime, the expectation would be that the crime rates would increase when the ban is lifted or it expires.Crime rates continuing to decline after the lifting of the ban suggests that factors other than the ban are affecting crime rates. (FBI, 2010). † (Wicked) This i nformation further supports the fact that there is no correlation between the controlling of firearms and the reduction of violent crime. Crime rates decreased after the expiration of the 1994 Assault Weapons Ban, and the evidence clearly shows that the banning of a certain weapon, causing that particular weapon to be more difficult to purchase, or causing a firearm to be too expensive to purchase will only ffect which weapon is chosen to commit a crime, not reduce the rate of crime. â€Å"Instead of deciding to ban a weapon as a response to a tragedy, the leaders of our country would better serve the people of the United States by conducting a study into the causes in society which create the situations that lead to violent crime and addressing those root causes, whether it be mental health, violent movies and games, lack of access to proper education, or whatever other root factor.Addressing the causes of the crimes will produce better long-term results in reducing violent crimes . † (Wicked) The shooters in these violent crimes were denied from purchasing firearms and in most cases resorted to taking them from a legal owner. How would gun control laws prevent this situation from happening in the future?Perhaps a mental health screening and identifying there might be a problem with these citizens in a mental aspect would be more effective than further gun laws that already denied the shooter the ability to purchase these firearms. We should be focusing on the mental aspect of this situation rather than the firearms themselves. If someone is planning on killing a massive amount of people, they most likely are not concerned with the legality of obtaining firearms. No laws against or banning of firearms have worked in the past, and they will not work now.Taking the politics out of the issue, and researching the true causes behind the crime while addressing them effectively would best serve both sides of the gun control debate. Jessica Vickers Dr. Jonne Ak ens Engl 1302 25 February 2013 Works Cited Kimberlin, Joanne. â€Å"The Second Amendment: two interpretations. † Virginian Pilot. 02 03 2008: n. page. Web. 3 Mar. 2013. Wicked, Joe, ed. â€Å"Does Gun Control Reduce Violent Crime? † Cold Dead Hands. Cold Dead Hands, 30 Jan 2013. Web. 2 Mar 2013.

Methods for Measuring National Income

We have so far been concerned with microeconomic aspects of managerial economics. This chapter onwards, we will deal with macroeconomic aspects of managerial economics. The major aspects of macroeconomics that are generally used in business analysis, especially in analyzing and understanding business environment of the country include (i) the level and trends in national income, (ii) factors determining national income, (iii) factors and forces leading to business cycles, (iv) the trend in general lend of price, especially inflation, (v) international economic aspects, and (vi) government policies, especially fiscal and monetary policies.In this chapter, we will discuss the meaning and methods of measuring national income and the methods of measuring national income in India.10. 1 UNIT OBJECTIVESTo define national income and its importance To discuss various methods of measuring national income To describe the methods used in India for measuring national income To show the growth and trends in national income of India.10. 2 DEFINITION OF NATIONAL INCOMENational income is the final outcome of all economic activities of a nation valued in terms of money. National income is the most important macroeconomic variable and determinant of the business level and environment of a country. The level of national income determines the level of aggregate demand for goods and services. Its distribution pattern determines the pattern of demand for goods and services, i. e. , how much of which good is demanded. The trend in national income determines the trends in aggregate demand, i. e. , the demand for the goods and services, and also the business prospects. Therefore, business decision makers need to keep in mind these aspects of the national income, especially those having long-run implications.National income or a relevant component of it is an indispensable variable considered in demand forecasting. Conceptually, national income is the money value of the end result of all economic activities of the nation. Economic activities generate a large number of goods and services, and make net addition to the national stock of capital. These together constitute the national income of a ‘closed economy’—an economy which has no economic transactions with the rest of the world. In an ‘open economy’, national income includes also the net results of its transactions with the rest of the world (i. e.  , exports less imports).Economic activities should be distinguished from the non-economic activities from a national point of view. Broadly speaking, economic activities include all human activities which create goods and services that can be valued at market price. Economic activities include production by farmers (whether for household consumption or for market), production by firms in the industrial sector, production of goods and services by the government enterprises, and services produced by business intermediaries (wholesaler s and retailers), banks and other financial organizations, universities, colleges and  hospitals, etc.On the other hand, non-economic activities are those which produce goods and services that do not have any economic value. Non-economic activities include spiritual, psychological, social and political services. The non-economic category of activities also includes hobbies, service to self, services of housewives, services of members of family to other members and exchange of mutual services between neighbours. We have defined national income from the angle of product flows. The same can be defined in terms of money flows.While economic activities generate flow of goods and services, on the one hand, they generate money flows, on the other, in the form of factor payments—wages, interest, rent, profits, and earnings of self-employed. Thus, national income may also be obtained by adding the factor earnings and adjusting the sum for indirect taxes and subsidies. The national i ncome thus obtained is known as national income at factor cost. It is related to money income flows. The concept of national income is linked to the society as a whole. It differs fundamentally from the concept of private income.Conceptually, national income refers to the money value of the entire final goods and services resulting from all economic activities of the country. This is not true of private income. Also from the calculation point of view, there are certain receipts of money or of services and goods that are not ordinarily included in private incomes but are included in the national incomes, and vice versa. National income includes, for example, employer's contribution to the social security and welfare funds for the benefit of employees, profits of public enterprises, and services of owner occupied houses.But it excludes the interest on war-loans, social security benefits and pensions. There items are, however, included in the private incomes. The national income is, th erefore, not merely an aggregation of the private incomes. One can however obtain an estimate of national income by summing up the private incomes after making necessary adjustments for the items excluded from the national income.10. 3 MEASURES OF NATIONAL INCOME10. 3. 1 Gross National Product (GNP)Of the various measures of national income used in national income analysis, GNP is the most important and widely used measure of national income. It is the most comprehensive measure of the nation’s productive activities. The GNP is defined as the value of all final goods and services produced during a specific period, usually one year, plus incomes earned abroad by the nationals minus incomes earned locally by the foreigners. The GNP so defined is identical to the concept of gross national income (GNI). Thus, GNP = GNI. The difference between the two is only of procedural nature.While GNP is estimated on the basis of product-flows, the GNI is estimated on the basis of money incom e flows, (i. e. , wages, profits, rent, interest, etc. ).NOTES 10. 3. 2 Gross Domestic Product (GDP)The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is defined as the market value of all final goods and services produced in the domestic economy during a period of one year, plus income earned locally by the foreigners minus incomes earned abroad by the nationals. The concept of GDP is similar to that of GNP with a significant procedural difference.In case of GNP the incomes earned by the nationals in foreign countries are added and incomes earned locally by the foreigners are deducted from the market value of domestically produced goods and services. In case of GDP, the process is reverse – incomes earned locally by foreigners are added and incomes earned abroad by the nationals are deducted from the total value of domestically produced goods and services.10. 3. 3 Net National Product (NNP)NNP is defined as GNP less depreciation, i. e. , NNP = GNP – Depreciation Depreciation is that pa rt of total productive assets which is used to  replace the capital worn out in the process of creating GNP. Briefly speaking, in the process of producing goods and services (including capital goods), a part of total stock of capital is used up. ‘Depreciation’ is the term used to denote the worn out or used up capital. An estimated value of depreciation is deducted from the GNP to arrive at NNP. The NNP, as defined above, gives the measure of net output available for consumption and investment by the society (including consumers, producers and the government). NNP is the real measure of the national income.NNP = NNI (net national income). In other words, NNP is the same as the national income at factor cost. It should be noted that NNP is measured at market prices including direct taxes. Indirect taxes are, however, not a point of actual cost of production. Therefore, to obtain real national income, indirect taxes are deducted from the NNP. Thus, NNP–indirect t axes = National Income.10. 3. 4 National Income:Some Accounting Relationships (a) Accounting Indentities at Market Price GNP ? GNI (Gross National Income) GDP ? GNP less Net Income from Abroad  NNP ? GNP less Depreciation NDP (Net Domestic Product) ? NNP less net income from abroad (b) Some Accounting Indentities at Factor Cost GNP at factor cost ? GNP at market price less net indirect taxes Check Your Progress 1. How is national income defined? 2. What are the measures of national income? 3. What is the difference between GNP and GDP? 4. What is meant by NNP? NNP at factor factor factor factor cost ? NNP at market price less net indirect taxes  cost ? NNP at market price less net income from abroad cost ? NDP at market price less net indirect taxes cost ? GDP at market price less Depreciation NOTES10. 4 METHODS OF MEASURING NATIONAL INCOMEFor measuring national income, the economy through which people participate in economic activities, earn their livelihood, produce goods and services and share the national products is viewed from three different angles. (1) The national economy is considered as an aggregate of producing units combining different sectors such as agriculture, mining, manufacturing, trade and commerce, etc.(2) The whole national economy is viewed as a combination of individuals and households owning different kinds of factors of production which they use themselves or sell factor-services to make their livelihood. (3) The national economy may also be viewed as a collection of consuming, saving and investing units (individuals, households and government). Following these notions of a national economy, national income may be measured by three different corresponding methods: (1) Net product method—when the entire national economy is considered as an aggregate of producing units;(2) Factor-income method—when national economy is considered as combination of factor-owners and users; (3) Expenditure method—when national econ omy is viewed as a collection of spending units. The procedures which are followed in measuring the national income in a closed economy—an economy which has no economic transactions with the rest of the world—are briefly described here. The measurement of national income in an open economy and adjustment with regard to income from abroad will be discussed subsequently. 10. 4. 1 Net Output or Value-Added Method The net output method is also called the value added method.In its standard form, this method consists of three stages: â€Å"(i) estimating the gross value of domestic output in the various branches of production; (ii) determining the cost of material and services used and also the depreciation of physical assets; and (iii) deducting these costs and depreciation from gross value to obtain the net value of domestic output†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . The net value of domestic product thus obtained is often called the value added or income product which is equal to the sum of wages, salaries, supplementary labour incomes, interest, profits, and net rent paid or accrued. Let us now describe the stages (i) and (ii) in some detail.Measuring Gross Value. For measuring the gross value of domestic product, output is classified under various categories on the basis of the nature of activities from which they originate. The output classification varies from country to country depending on (i) the nature of domestic activities; (ii) their significance in aggregate economic activities, and (iii) availability of requisite data. For example, in the US, about seventy-one divisions and subdivisions are used to classify the national output; in Canada and the Netherlands, classification ranges from a dozen to a score; and in Russia, only half a dozen divisions are used.According to the CSO publication, fifteen sub-categories are currently used in India. 300 Self-Instructional Material After the output is classified under the various categories, the value of gross output is computed in two alternative ways: (i) by multiplying the output of each category of sector by their respective market price and adding them together, or (ii) by collective data about the gross sales and changes in inventories from the account of the manufacturing enterprises and computing the value of GDP on the basis thereof.If there are gaps in data, some estimates are made thereof and gaps are filled. Estimating Cost of Production. The next step in estimating the net national product is to estimate the cost of production including depreciation. Estimating cost of production is, however, a relatively more complicated and difficult task because of nonavailability of adequate and requisite data. Much more difficult is the task of estimating depreciation since it involves both conceptual and statistical problems.For this reason, many countries adopt factor-income method for estimating their national income. However, countries adopting net-product method find some ways and means t o calculate the deductible cost. The costs are estimated either in absolute terms (where input data are adequately available) or as an overall ratio of input to the total output. The general practice in estimating depreciation is to follow the usual business practice of depreciation accounting. Traditionally, depreciation is calculated at some percentage of capital, permissible under the tax-laws.In some estimates of national income, the estimators have deviated from the traditional practice and have instead estimated depreciation as some ratio of the current output of final goods. Following a suitable method, deductible costs including depreciation are estimated for each sector. The cost estimates are then deducted from the sectoral gross output to obtain the net sectoral products. The net sectoral products are then added together. The total thus obtained is taken to be the measure of net national products or national income by net product method.10. 4. 2 Factor-Income MethodThis m ethod is also known as income method and factor-share method. Under this method, the national income is calculated by adding up all the â€Å"incomes accruing to the basic factors of production used in producing the national product†. Factors of production are conventionally classified as land, labour, capital and organization. Accordingly, the national income equals the sum of the corresponding factor earning. Thus, National income = Rent + Wages + Interest + ProfitHowever, in a modern economy, it is conceptually very difficult to make a distinction between earnings from land and capital, on the one hand, and between the earnings from ordinary labour and entrepreneurial functions, on the other. For the purpose of estimating national income, therefore, factors of production are broadly grouped as labour and capital. Accordingly, national income is supposed to originate from two primary factors, viz. , labour and capital. In some activities, however, labour and capital are joi ntly supplied and it is difficult to separate the labour and capital contents from the total earnings of the supplier.Such incomes are termed as mixed incomes. Thus, the total factor-incomes are grouped under three categories: (i) labour incomes; (ii) capital incomes; and (iii) mixed incomes. Labour Incomes. Labour incomes included in the national income have three components: (a) wages and salaries paid to the residents of the country including bonus and commission, and social security payments; (b) supplementary labour incomes including employer’s contribution to social security and employee’s welfare funds, and direct pension payments to retired employees2; (c) supplementary labour incomes in kind, e.  g. , free health and education, food and clothing, and accommodation, etc.Compensations in kind in the form of domestic servants and such other free-of-cost services provided to the employees are included in labour income. War bonuses, pensions, service grants are n ot included in labour income as they are regarded as ‘transfer payments’. Certain other categories of income, e. g. , incomes from incidental jobs, gratuities, tips etc. , are ignored for lack of data.Capital Incomes. capital earnings:NOTESAccording to Studenski, capital incomes include the following (a) dividends excluding inter-corporate dividends; (b) undistributed before-tax profits of corporations; (c) interest on bonds, mortgages, and saving deposits (excluding interests on war bonds, and on consumer-credit); (d) interest earned by insurance companies and credited to the insurance policy reserves; (e) net interest paid out by commercial banks; (f) net rents from land, buildings, etc. , including imputed net rents on owneroccupied dwellings; (g) royalties; and (h) profits of government enterprises.The data for the first two items are obtained mostly from the firms' accounts submitted for taxation purposes. But the definition of profit for national accounting purpos es differs from that employed by taxation authorities. Some adjustments in the income tax data become, therefore, necessary. The data adjustments generally pertain to (i) excessive allowance of depreciation made by the firms; (ii) elimination of capital gains and losses since these do not reflect the changes in current income; and (iii) elimination of under or over-valuation of inventories on book-value.Mixed Income. Mixed incomes include earnings from (a) farming enterprises, (b) sole proprietorship (not included under profit or capital income); and (c) other professions, e. g. , legal and medical practices, consultancy services, trading and transporting etc. This category also includes the incomes of those who earn their living through various sources as wages, rent on own property, interest on own capital, etc. All the three kinds of incomes, viz. , labour incomes, capital incomes and mixed incomes added together give the measure of national income by factor-income method.10. 4. 3 Expenditure MethodThe expenditure method, also known as final product method, measures national income at the final expenditure stages. In estimating the total national expenditure, any of the two following methods are followed: first, all the money expenditures at market price are computed and added up together, and second, the value of all the products finally disposed of are computed and added up, to arrive at the total national expenditure.The items of expenditure which are taken into account under the first method are (a) private consumption expenditure; (b) direct tax payments; (c) payments to the non-profitmaking institutions and charitable organizations like schools, hospitals, orphanages, etc. ; and (d) private savings. Under the second method, the following items are considered: (a) private consumer goods and services; (b) private investment goods; (c) public goods and services; and (d) net investment abroad. The second method is more extensively used because the data re quired in this method can be collected with greater ease and accuracy.Treatment of Net Income from Abroad.We have so far discussed methods of measuring national income of a ‘closed economy’. But most economies are open in the sense that they carry out foreign trade in goods and services and financial transactions with the rest of the world. In the process, some nations get net income through foreign trade while some lose their income to foreigners. The net earnings or loss in foreign trade affects the national income. In measuring the national income, therefore, the net  result of external transactions are adjusted to the total.Net incomes from abroad are added to, and net losses to the foreigners are deducted from the total national income arrived at through any of the above three methods. Briefly, speaking, all exports of merchandise and of services like shipping, insurance, banking, tourism, and gifts are added to the national income. And, all the imports of the co rresponding items are deducted from the value of national output to arrive at the approximate measure of national income. To this is added the net income from foreign investment.These adjustments for international transactions are based on the international balance of payments of the nations.10. 5 CHOICE OF METHODSAs discussed above, there are three standard methods of measuring the national income, viz. , net product (or value added) method, factor-income or factor cost method and expenditure method. All the three methods would give the same measure of national income, provided requisite data for each method is adequately available. Therefore, any of the three methods may be adopted to measure the national income.But all the three methods are not suitable for all the economies simply for non-availability of necessary data and for all purposes. Hence, the question of choice of method arises. The two main considerations on the basis of which a particular method is chosen are: (i) the purpose of national income analysis, and (ii) availability of necessary data. If the objective is to analyse the net output or value added, the net output method is more suitable. In case the objective is to analyse the factor-income distribution, the suitable method for measuring national income is the income method.If the objective at hand is to find out the expenditure pattern of the national income, the expenditure or final products method should be applied. However, availability of adequate and appropriate data is a relatively more important consideration is selecting a method of estimating national income. Nevertheless, the most common method is the net product method because: (i) this method requires classification of the economic activities and output thereof which is much easier than to classify income or expenditure; and (ii) the most common practice is to collect and organize the national income data by the division of economic activities.Briefly speaking, the easy avail ability of data on economic activities is the main reason for the popularity of the output method. It should be however borne in mind that no single method can give an accurate measure of national income since the statistical system of no country provides the total data requirements for a particular method. The usual practice is, therefore, to combine two or more methods to measure the national income. The combination of methods again depends on the nature of data required and sectoral break-up of the available data.10. 6 MEASUREMENT OF NATIONAL INCOME IN INDIACheck Your Progress In India, a systematic measurement of national income was first attempted in 1949. Earlier, many attempts were made by some individuals and institutions. The earliest estimate of India’s national income was made by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1867–68. Since then many attempts were made, mostly by the economists and the government authorities, to estimate India’s national income3. These estimate s differ in coverage, concepts and methodology and are not comparable.Besides, earlier estimates were mostly for one year, only some estimates covered a period of 3 to 4 years. It was therefore not possible to construct a consistent series of national income and assess the performance of the economy over a period of time. 5. What are the methods of measuring national income? 6. What is value-added method? 7. What is factor-income method of measuring national income? 8. How is income from abroad adjusted in national income?In 1949, A National Income Committee (NIC) was appointed with P. C. Mahalanobis as its Chairman, and D. R. Gadgil and V. K. R. V. Rao as members. The NIC not only highlighted the limitations of the statistical system of that time but also suggested ways and means to improve data collection systems. On the recommendation of the Committee, the Directorate of National Sample Survey was set up to collect additional data required for estimating national income. Besides, the NIC estimated the country’s national income for the period from 1948–49 to 1950–52.In its estimates, the NIC also provided the methodology for estimating national income, which was followed till 1967. In 1967, the task of estimating national income was given to the Central Statistical Organization (CSO). Till 1967, the CSO had followed the methodology laid down by the NIC. Thereafter, the CSO adopted a relatively improved methodology and procedure which had become possible due to increased availability of data. The improvements pertain mainly to the industrial classification of the activities. The CSO publishes its estimates in its publication, Estimates of National Income.Methodology used in India Currently, net output and factor income methods are used by the CSO to estimate the national income of the country. The output method is used for agriculture and manufacturing sectors, i. e. , the commodity producing sectors. For these sectors, the value added me thod is adopted. Income method is used for the service sectors including trade, commerce, transport and government services. In its conventional series of national income statistics from 1950-51 to 1966-67, the CSO had categorized the income in 13 sectors.But, in the revised series, it had adopted the following 15 break-ups of the national economy for estimating the national income; (i) Agriculture; (ii) Forestry and logging; (iii) Fishing; (iv) Mining and quarrying; (v) Large-scale manufacturing; (vi) Small-scale manufacturing; (vii) Construction; (viii) Electricity, gas and water supply; (ix) Transport and communication; (xii) Real estate and dwellings; (xiii) Public Administration and Defence; (xiv) Other services; and (xv) External transactions. The national income is estimated at both constant and current prices. 10.7 SUMMARY National income is the market value of all final goods and services produced in a country over a period of time, generally one year. In general, there are three important measures of national income, viz. , (i) GNP, (ii) GDP, and (iii) NNP. In measuring GNP, income earned abroad by the nationals is added and income earned by foreigners in the country is subtracted from national income estimates; on the contrary, a reverse process is used in estimating GDP. NNP is defined as GNP–Depreciation. Depreciation equals the loss of national capital in the process of production.There are three methods of measuring national income: (i) Value-added method, (ii) factor-income method, and (iii) expenditure method. The choice of method depends on the availability of data required for estimating national income. Often two or all the three methods are combined to estimate national income. In India, an organisation called CSO estimates the national income. It uses net output and factor income method for estimating national income. 304 Self-Instructional Material10. 8 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’1.National income is defined as t he market value of all final goods and services produced during a period of time, usually one year.2. In general, three measures of national income are used in economic and business anaylsis: (i) GNP, (ii) GDP, and (iii) NNP.3. The difference between GNP and GDP lies in the treatment of income earned abroad by nationals and income earned by foreigner in the domestic economy. In measuring GNP, income abroad by nationals is added and income earned by foreigners in the country is deducted from the value estimated. In case of GDP, a reverse process is used.4. NNP means GNP less depreciation, i. e. , the value of national capital lost in the process national production.5. There are three methods of measuring national income: (i) net product or value added method, (ii) factor income method, and (iii) expenditure method.6. Under value-added method, first gross value of national product is estimated. Then costs of material and services also depreciation are estimated. These costs are deduct ed from the gross value to arrive at national income.7. In general, factor income method follows the principle that national income = wages + rent + interest + profit. For estimating national income, however, factor incomes are classified as (i) labour income, (ii) capital income, and (iii) mixed income.8. The adjustment of income earned abroad depends on GNP and GDP estimation. In case of GNP, income earned abroad by the citizens of a country is added to the gross value. But in case of GDP, this is deducted from the gross value.10. 9 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS1. What is the relevance of national income statistics in business decisions?  What kinds of business decisions are influenced by the change in national income?2. Describe the various methods of measuring national income. How is a method chosen for measuring national income?3. Distinguish between net-product method and factor-income method. Which of these methods is followed in India?4. Does the method of measuring national inc ome of a ‘closed economy’ differ from one followed in an ‘open economy’? How is foreign income treated in national income estimates?5. What is value-added? Explain the value-added method of estimating national income.